Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia made great use of WNYC radio to educate and inform his constituents. He is probably best known for reading the comics on the radio during the newspaper deliverymen’s strike in July 1945. But later that year, in another WNYC radio broadcast, he addressed a common problem faced by New Yorkers: how to cook a large turkey in a small apartment oven.
New York City’s Earliest Mayors
New York City has a mayor-centric form of government. But it did not start out that way. In 1665, shortly after the English assumed control of the colony from the Dutch, governor Richard Nicolls appointed Thomas Willett as the first New York City mayor.
Old City Hall, Wall Street. Manual of the Corporation of the City of New York, D. T. Valentine. 1847. NYC Municipal Library.
Over the next 150 years, the colonial governor, and then the governor of New York State, annually appointed the mayor. The early mayors sat on the Common Council and had limited powers. Beginning in 1820, the Common Council elected the mayors. In 1830, the mayor was given the power to veto decisions of the Council, of which he was no longer a member. The first direct election of the mayor took place in 1834 when Cornelius Van Wyck Lawrence defeated Gulian Verplanck, both descendants of Dutch colonists.
As the city grew in population and complexity through the 19th century, so too did the relative importance of the mayoralty. The Municipal Archives’ mayoral papers collection mirrors this trajectory of the executive office in city government. Although the office of mayor dates to 1665, the first collection of mayoral papers consists of exactly two thin folders of documents from the office of Mayor Philip Hone (1826-27). By contrast, the Common Council papers from that same time period totals more than 13 cubic feet.
Request for Hand Cart License, by William Madden, submitted to Mayor Philip Hone, May 20, 1826. Mayor Philip Hone Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
Application to Mayor Hone by James Maurice for appointment as Auctioneer for the City and County of New York, April 18, 1825. Mayor Philip Hone Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
Mayoral collections from 1827 through 1848 similarly contain one or two folders of documents. One exception is Mayor Aaron Clark (1837-38). During his mayoralty the city experienced a yellow fever outbreak and his collection includes four folders of documents related to quarantining vessels landing in New York harbor.
Quarantine Report re: Schooner Exchange of N.Y., arriving from the City of San Domingo, on July 1st, 1837. Mayor Aaron Clark Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
Quarantine Report re: Schooner Mary Ann, arriving from Key West, on July 3rd, 1837. Mayor Aaron Clark Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
The collection of Mayor Caleb S. Woodhull, 1849-1851, although still miniscule (.25 cubic feet) in comparison to subsequent mayoral office holders, consists of eleven folders pertaining to the Commissioner of Emigration: Quarantine – Reports of Passengers, and two other folders related to emigrant boarding houses and runners.
Grant of License to Act as Emigrant Runner, to Charles Frederick Stiernfeld, by Mayor Caleb Woodhull, July 29, 1850. Mayor Caleb S. Woodhull Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
Major public works such as the Croton Aqueduct (opened in 1842), the Central Park (opened in 1859), and the Brooklyn Bridge (open in 1883), together with the need to maintain these and related infrastructure—water and sewer lines, utilities, streets, parks, bridges, docks, etc. —led to the establishment of municipal departments. Recurring epidemics and the demand to protect public health led to creation of the Department of Health in 1866. The Department of Buildings, also established in 1866, came in response to advances in building technology that required regulations and oversight. The Department of Public Charities and Correction dates to 1860. And the growing population required more protective services—police and fire. This ever-increasing municipal work force and resulting opportunities for patronage enhanced the power executive office.
Bridge No. VII, Central Park, Presentation Drawing, 1859. Department of Parks Drawings Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
Similarly, the volume and intellectual content of the mayoral collections grew during this period. Mayor William Havemeyer (1873-74) and Mayor William H. Wickham (1875-76) both generated 12 cubic feet of records; the Abram S. Hewitt (1887-88) collection is 19 cubic feet and Mayor Hugh J. Grant (1889-92) tops out at 31 cubic feet.
In theory, consolidation of the Greater City of New York in 1898 and the vast increase in the jurisdiction of the municipality should have cemented the mayor’s power. Although the mayor became the symbolic head of government, the newly created Offices of the Borough Presidents circumscribed the executive’s ability to control the city’s payroll. Other powers were shared with a strengthened Board of Estimate. But beginning with the mayoralty of Fiorello LaGuardia (1934-45), the powers of the executive began to overtake the other branches and to accrue the powers it enjoys until the present day.
Future blogs will examine the role of the mayor and how the Municipal Archives’ mayoral collections—each unique—reflect the time period and the individual who held the office.
Proclamation by Mayor Opdyke, November 21, 1863.
But before we leave our 19th century mayors, we will give one mayor, George Opdyke (1862-64), a special shout-out in recognition of the upcoming Thanksgiving holiday. In 1863, during the Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln issued a proclamation fixing the national observation of Thanksgiving on the final Thursday in November, a move he hoped would help “heal the wounds of the nation.” In New York City, Mayor Opdyke issued his own Proclamation acknowledging the President’s designation of Thursday the 26th as a “…day of Thanksgiving and Prayer” and adding “…it becomes the duty of every good citizen to refrain from all secular employment on that day, and to devote it to appropriate religious exercises.”
Wishing everyone a Happy Thanksgiving. Look for our next blog on December 4.
The Eternal Light Flagstaff in Madison Square Park
On Wednesday, November 11, 2020, New Yorkers observed Veterans Day. Until 1954, the annual November 11th observance had been known as “Armistice Day” commemorating the day and hour World War 1 hostilities ceased: the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918.
Celebrating the end of World War I on the steps of City Hall, November 18, 1918. Grover Whalen Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
In November 1919, President Wilson proclaimed November 11th as the first commemoration of Armistice Day. In 1926, the U.S. Congress resolved that “…the recurring anniversary of this date should be commemorated with thanksgiving and prayer and exercises designed to perpetuate peace through good will and mutual understanding between nations.” Armistice Day became a federal holiday by an Act of Congress in 1938. In 1954, Congress changed the holiday to “Veterans Day” in order to account for all veterans in all wars.
The eternal light on the top of the flagstaff was illuminated on Armistice Day, November 11, 1923, and the monument dedicated the following spring on June 7, 1924. Flagstaff Memorial Monument, Madison Square Park, n.d. Art Commission Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
In our blog commemorating Veterans Day last November [link], writer Stuart Marques explored the fascinating history of New York City’s “….elaborate welcome home events for our soldiers and the generals who led them, and often riotous celebrations.” This year we will examine a quieter tribute, the Eternal Light Flagstaff memorial monument. Located in Manhattan’s Madison Square Park, the memorial honors the United States Army soldiers and Navy sailors who fought in World War I.
Grover Whalen, April 4, 1924. Department of Bridges, Plant & Structures Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
Like most New York City celebratory events of that era, Grover Whalen orchestrated the “Illumination Day” activities. Appointed by Mayor Hylan as the city’s official greeter in 1919, Grover Whalen had the idea to throw ticker-tape receptions for returning World War I soldiers and to continue the practice for distinguished guests over the next three decades. Famous for his top hat and the carnation he always wore in his lapel, Whalen presided over more than 1,000 public events, and organized more than 150 ticker-tape parades before he retired in 1953.
Department store magnate Rodman Wanamaker, a confidante and ally of Whalen, had donated the $25,000 cost of the flagstaff. On Illumination Day Wanamaker set alight the star on the flagstaff, and in brief remarks, said “. . .We are gathered here today to thoughtfully recall the valiant deeds of those who make it possible that our nation might be saved. We are here in memory of those who will never be here, but whose sacrifice has made possible our country’s preservation.”
Plan of Madison Square showing location of flag pole with eternal light. Blueprint, 1924. Grover Whalen Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
After the ceremony, the New York Times reported that Wilson and Randolph Hearst, the 7-year-old twin sons of newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst, distributed cigarettes to the disabled soldiers, who later rode in trucks in the Armistice Day parade up to the Central Park mall.
The Municipal Archives’ collections of Whalen materials provides ample documentary evidence of Whalen’s organizational skills. No detail was too small. The papers in his collection related to the Eternal light illumination on November 11, 1923 are typically extensive.
Confirming arrangements for the November 11, 1923, illumination event. Grover Whalen Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
Architect Thomas Hastings (1860-1929), of the firm Carrere and Hastings, designed the monument. Paul Wayland Bartlett (1865-1925), a student of French master sculptor Auguste Rodin, sculpted the decorative bronze cap at the base of the flagstaff including garlands and rams heads. The star-shaped luminaire at the top of the pole is intended to be lit at all times as an eternal tribute to those who paid the supreme sacrifice.
According to the Department of Parks and Recreation, the original wooden flagstaff, towering 125-feet tall, was said to be hewn from a century-old tree culled from “the virgin forests of Oregon and transported over the Rocky Mountains.” The monument has been repaired and upgraded on several occasions. In 1976, the original wooden flagstaff was replaced with a metal mast. In 2017, the Madison Square Park Conservancy refurbished the luminaire, and in 2018 removed the fences that had confined the monument and redesigned the surrounding plaza. The Eternal Light continues to serve as the site where the annual citywide official Veterans Day ceremony takes place and the Veterans Day parade embarks up Fifth Avenue.
Mayor Robert Wagner (center) presided over the annual ceremony at the memorial flagstaff in Madison Square Park, on November 11, 1965. Official Mayors Photograph Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
Annual ceremony at the memorial flagstaff, Madison Square Park, November 11, 1965. Official Mayors Photograph Collection, NYC Municipal Archives.
Brooklyn Bridge Architectural Drawings: Material Matters
During the past year, Municipal Archives conservators have been treating the original oversize plans for the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge to make them accessible to scholars and the public. The drawings are very large, very detailed, and in some cases very brittle. Naturally, as conservators, we have a lot of questions: Why is some of the drawing paper so hard and brittle while some is not? Considering that they are eight to twelve-feet in length (and some even longer), how were the drawings made? Are the inks soluble and will they bleed or smudge during treatment with water? A more in-depth look at the manufacturing and drafting processes helps to inform our treatment plan.
Paper
In the early part of the 19th century paper mills mechanized their processes to keep up with demand. Later, chemical bleaching and alum-rosin sizing was introduced into the paper manufacturing process.
The standard type of paper available for drawings of this size was called “Manilla” so named because the abaca fiber used to produce the paper was recycled from ropes from Philippine ships. By the mid-19th century it was made with wood pulp and coloring to imitate the light yellow-brown color of the original. The paper produced was available in rolls and had a hard, smooth surface, perfect for drawing. It was cheaper than white drawing paper and could be cut to almost any length.
“Sizing” is essentially a filler or coating applied to paper that alters the surface texture in order to prevent inks from bleeding into the absorptive fibers. Traditionally applied to the surface of each individual sheet, the modern paper mill could add sizing to the beaten pulp, streamlining the papermaking process. Rosin is an acidic resin that requires alum (a soluble aluminum-containing-product) to adhere to cellulose fibers. The rosin coated fibers resist the absorption of water (or inks containing water) improving the writing surface.
Due to the very smooth surface and internal sizing, water is not readily absorbed into these papers. NYC Municipal Archives.
In addition, rosin sizing improved the formation and strength of each sheet as it sped through the iron rollers of the mills. Rollers heated to higher temperatures would create a smoother and harder surface. A drawing with very fine lines requires paper with these qualities to keep the pen point from skipping and the ink from spreading. According to Cathy Baker in her excellent book, From the Hand to the Machine, “. . . alum was used rather indiscriminately to correct most problems in the manufacture of paper.” [1]
The acidic sizing process, plus the inherent acidity of the wood pulp paper fibers that the drawings are composed of, as well as almost 100 years of less-than-ideal storage conditions prior to their acquisition by the Municipal Archives all contribute to the extreme brittleness that these papers display today.[2]
Raking light highlights the subtle texture of cracking from embrittlement in this drawing). NYC Municipal Archives.
In order to make the drawings available for research, part of our treatment includes washing out acidic compounds to prevent further degradation. The paper must be submerged in and absorb water so that the the acids will wash out. Knowing that there will be resistance to that absorption allows us to modify the treatment to include a solvent in the water bath. The solvent helps break the bond of the resin to the paper fiber, allowing water in and out of the fibers taking the acidic compounds along with it.
Ink
Submerging the paper in water means that we would have to be certain that the drawing will remain in place. Nineteenth century manuals for the practice of draftsmanship recommended that the “best” ink for drawing was “the cheapest” black India ink.[3] India ink is made from a combination of soot, or “lampblack” and gum Arabic with shellac or bicarbonate of ammonium or magnesium added to make it waterproof. The soot is the collected pure carbon formed when oil or tar is burned in a low oxygen environment. Essentially, the collected soot is ground into a very fine pigment and mixed with the water-soluble gum binder. The oldest true inks were made this way.
The first synthetic colored dye, Mauveine purple, was developed in 1856. Because of the immense commercial success of the dye (it could easily color cotton, making colored fabrics accessible to the new middle class) chemists raced to produce a rainbow. The first colors were in the red family—madders and carmines—purples and vermillion-like colors. The chemistry for blues did not arrive until 1863 and was quite expensive. The indigo plant remained the primary source for blue dye until the 1890s.
Three ink colors were used by draftsmen in the Brooklyn Bridge drawings: black for the primary image and shading; red for measurement indications; and blue to highlight certain features like train tracks or architectural elements. If a color was used to indicate measurements, red was the standard. Blues were used to indicate metals such as cast- and wrought-iron and steel.
The subtle red colored lines indicate measurements and the subtle blues indicate the steel railroad tracks on the bridge. NYC Municipal Archives
Professional draftsmen are artists, trained to produce mechanical or technical drawings that fully describe the way something functions or is constructed. A modern draftsman is highly-skilled in perspective drawing and graphic design, and knowledgeable regarding measuring systems, notational systems and engineering. Today, architectural drawings are largely finalized using CAD software. When the Brooklyn Bridge was built, the drawings were produced entirely by hand, using specialized tools and standardized drawing techniques. The draughtsman’s work was relied upon to convey complex details—from the span of the bridge to the angle of the threads on the bolts that held it together—in a common pictorial language that would be understood by the numerous foremen, craftsmen, contractors and vendors involved in the production of the structure.
The drawings were composed using a “T” square, compass, protractor, French curves, set triangles, and metal fountain pens to make straight and precisely curved thin lines in black ink. Shading was done using patterns of lines drawn closely together or by color washes. Patterns for shading and methods for drawing plans were published in guidebooks to provide instructions on the proper way to convey the details of the plans to others. [4]
Although most black inks remain insoluble during aqueous treatments, they must always be tested for water-fastness. Not only because one’s eye is not necessarily the best judge of ink quality, but because water-soluble dyes (aniline reds or indigo blues, or both) were sometimes added to improve the richness of the black.
Colored inks made with dyes were favored for fountain pens because the brightly colored liquid flows easily, but dye-based inks remain water soluble and fade in UV light. Colored inks must always be tested when considering aqueous treatment to prevent bleeding or washing off.
We learned that the red and blue inks of the Brooklyn Bridge drawings are soluble in water to various degrees. Thus, conservators may use special methods of fixing the inks or masking off areas that may be negatively affected by water. Similar to the use of a mordant added to fabric dyes to prevent bleeding, conservators may use fixatives to keep inks stable during aqueous treatment.
A water droplet is placed in an innocuous spot on the ink to be tested. The droplet is blotted with a clean blotter paper. This test shows minimal solubility of the black ink. NYC Municipal Archives.
There is always the expectation of a surprise when carrying out a complicated conservation treatment. That expectation is a motivating factor in planning a well- thought out and researched treatment protocol. Understanding the materials that make up your object contributes a great deal to performing a treatment without surprises.
[1] Baker, Cathleen A., From the Hand to the Machine. Ann Arbor, MI: Legacy Press, 2010. p. 72
[2] You can read about the discovery and storage conditions of the Brooklyn Bridge Plans before they were acquired by the archives here. Link to: https://www.americanheritage.com/treasure-carpentry-shop
[3] Camp, Fredrich T., “Draftsman’s Manual, or How Do I Learn Architecture?” New York: Comstock, 1883
[4] American Technical Society, “Cyclopedia of Architecture, Carpentry and Building,” Chicago: American Technical Society, 1912
Rochdale Village Protests
In October, 2019, the New York City Municipal Archives finished digitizing a collection of over 1,400 surveillance films created by the NYPD’s Bureau of Special Services and Investigations. Many featured political protests and demonstrations from 1960 to 1980. Prior to the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, this surveillance program focused intensely on actions carried out by members of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) as they protested racial injustice and unequal treatment. One of the longest of these actions was the protest against the construction of the Rochdale Village housing cooperative.
At the time of its opening in late 1963, Rochdale Village in South Jamaica, Queens was the largest integrated housing cooperative in the country. Located within a community that was almost entirely African American, it was part of a City-wide effort to racially integrate New York’s communities. And yet, during that summer, a nearly three-month long protest against Rochdale Village was conducted by NAACP, CORE and inter-faith groups. Although the building was promised to have both black and white tenants, an all-white construction union was hired to build it. During the summer of 1963, dozens of protesters interrupted the construction using a wide array of civil disobedience techniques.
Rochdale Village, 133rd Avenue East and New York Boulevard [Demonstration against racial discrimination in hiring practices], August 9, 1963
These techniques were sometimes as simple as sitting in the street to block traffic to the construction site. Others were more clever and subtle, with protesters walking so slowly while they picketed the entrance to the site that trucks could not leave or enter. Other times, seemingly unrelated people would fall from their bicycles while riding right in front of construction trucks. Protesters would then rush to the fallen person’s side to provide help, blocking traffic at the same time. While police officers would quickly arrest those who sat in the street or chained themselves to construction equipment, the more subtle techniques seemed to genuinely complicate or challenge the ability to arrest protesters.
Rochdale Village, 133rd Avenue East and New York Boulevard [Demonstration against racial discrimination in hiring practices], August 9, 1963
William H. Booth was one leader of the protests. The president of the New York State chapter of the NAACP at the time, Booth can be seen in several films going back and forth between fellow protesters and the police, sometimes frustrated, sometimes laughing, often coaching those who were being arrested. Eventually, Booth himself was arrested along with 23 others, the most arrests in a single day during the months-long demonstration. Although they were charged with disorderly conduct for trying to block construction trucks, the charges were later dropped. Booth would be appointed to Mayor John Lindsay’s Commission on Human Rights from 1966 to 1969, only three years after the Rochdale Village protest. After that, he served as a New York judge for 13 years on the Criminal and State Supreme Courts. Booth passed away in 2006 at the age of 84.
Rochdale Village, 133rd Avenue East and New York Boulevard [Demonstration against racial discrimination in hiring practices], August 8, 1963
Rochdale Village was completed in the fall of 1963, with 10% of its low and middle income housing units going to families of color. Over the next two decades, the share of apartments occupied by families of color would increase as white families left Rochdale Village and urban centers more generally for the suburbs. Rising crime, increased carrying charges (equivalent to rent) and troubled schools helped fuel the exodus. The housing cooperative fell into disrepair during the 80s and most of the 90s, but as the City revitalized by the end of the 20th century, so too did Rochdale Village. Today, it is fully-occupied and boasts of being one of the most affordable housing cooperatives in the City.
During the early 1960s, the NYPD filmed several other NAACP and CORE protests against the use of segregated construction labor for more housing cooperatives, hospitals and other buildings. In addition to protesting segregated labor, the NYPD also recorded NAACP and CORE rallies against segregated schooling, the prevalence of police brutality against communities of color, and the Vietnam War. Over the course of the 1960s, the NYPD documentation of NAACP and CORE actions slowly diminished to be replaced by film of other organizations fighting for racial justice like the Black Panther Party. Films featuring demonstrations by the NAACP, CORE, the Black Panther Party and many others are now available to browse on the New York City Municipal Archives online gallery: gallery
Elections in NYC
The United States is experiencing one of the most tumultuous national election cycles in our country’s history. Already, two weeks before Election Day, millions of people have voted either through early voting or with absentee ballots, also known as mail-in votes. On Saturday, October 24, voters in New York State will begin nine days of early voting. And on Election Day, November 3, registered voters will be able to cast their vote during a full day from 6 a.m. to 9 p.m.
We pulled some images and film footage related to campaigns and elections from our digitized collections to remind everyone of this country’s long history of the democratic process.
Department of Public Works Commissioner Halleran standing by an election poster for President Abraham Lincoln and Vice President Andrew Johnson, the “Union Nomination,” n.d. Borough President Queens Photograph Collection. NYC Municipal Archives
Fiorello LaGuardia ran on the Fusion Party ticket in the 1933 election for mayor. He won. Poster, 1933. Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia Collection. NYC Municipal Archives
In 1968, City Council President Paul O’Dwyer ran for the U.S. Senate. He won the primary, but lost in the November general election to the Republican Jacob K. Javits. Senate Campaign Poster. Municipal Archives Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.
Robert Kennedy served in the U.S. Senate representing New York from January 1965 until his assassination in June 1968. Campaign Brochure, 1965. Vertical Files. NYC Municipal Library.
Hubert Humphrey’s 1968 presidential campaign made a swing through lower Manhattan on October 8, 1968, captured in this silent film, NYPD Surveillance Film Collection. NYC Municipal Archives.